Bizarre frog can break its own bones to produce cat-like extendable claws

Biologists have described a bizarre, hairy frog, which in a gruesome process, actively breaks its own bones to produce cat-like extendable claws.

According to a report in New Scientist, the frog, known as Trichobatrachus robustus, has been described by David Blackburn and colleagues at Harvard Universitys Museum of Comparative Zoology.

The researchers believe that the gruesome behaviour of this frog is a defence mechanism, also observed in nine of the 11 frogs belonging to the Astylosternus genus, most of which live in Cameroon.

T. robustus actively breaks its own bones to produce claws that puncture their way out of the frogs toe pads, probably when it is threatened. This indicates that this gruesome behaviour might serve as a defence mechanism for the frog.

The claws of T. robustus, found on the hind feet only, are nestled inside a mass of connective tissue. A chunk of collagen forms a bond between the claws sharp point and a small piece of bone at the tip of the frogs toe.

The other end of the claw is connected to a muscle.

Blackburn and his colleagues believe that when the animal is attacked, it contracts this muscle, which pulls the claw downwards. The sharp point then breaks away from the bony tip and cuts through the toe pad, emerging on the underside.

The end result may look like a cats claw, but the breaking and cutting mechanism is very different and unique among vertebrates. Also unique is the fact that the claw is just bone and does not have an outer coating of like other claws do.

Because Blackburn has only studied dead specimens, he said that hes unaware what happens when the claw retracts or even how it retracts.

It does not appear to have a muscle to pull it back inside, so the team thinks it may passively slide back into the toe pad when its muscle relaxes.

Being amphibiansit would not be surprising if some parts of the wound heal and the tissue is regenerated, said Blackburn.

Some frogs grow spines on their thumbs during breeding season, but this is entirely different, said Ian Stephen, curator of herpetology at the Zoological Society of London, UK. For me, it highlights the need for a lot more research on amphibians especially in light of the threat of mass extinctionshe added.

From Thaindian news.

Snake Mystique

Since the beginning of recorded time, snakes have been labeled with bad reputations. Some of these ridiculous misconceptions stem from superstitions, others from religious dogmas, but the majority of these opinions are formed out of fear and ignorance of the unknown.

The only way to gain a deeper insight into the truth is to study the facts. Snakes play a very important role in our delicate ecological system, and we owe it to ourselves as dedicated sportsmen to learn more about them.

 

This coiled rattler is shaking its tail as a defense mechanism. Be forewarned that snakes can strike almost half their body length. A 4-foot snake can reach you from 2 feet away. Rattlers account for the majority of bites in the Western States.

The annual statistics in the United States for reported snake bites fluctuates between 7,000-10,000 people. The majority of victims are men, and most bites occur below the knee. Approximately 10-15 deaths are attributed to these venomous snake encounters.

Because of warmer climates, snakes in Southern states pose the greatest risk for deer hunters. Alabama, Arizona, Florida, Georgia and Texas are among the leaders in snake reported incidents.

Large snakes are the only God-given predators with the keen ability to slither down rat-holes and other hard to reach places, and effectively control vermin such as rats and mice. It takes a snake approximately seven years of growth to reach a suitable size to be able to swallow some of the larger rodents such as these. Unfortunately, many are killed before reaching maturity by people who are oblivious to their environmental value.

 

This is a coral snake. They are easily identified by the three rings of color located on their body. The easy way to remember the color scheme is to memorize the old saying: Red touch yellow, kill a fellow. The harmless milk snake is often confused with this serpent

Snakes are cold-blooded reptiles and when the weather turns cool they seek shelter. When it freezes they go into hibernation. Most snake bites occur between the months of April and October when temperatures are relatively warm. Snakes like to lie up and hide in woodpiles, blow-downs, tall grass, rock crevices and underneath things that provide shelter.

All pit vipers can be identified by their vertical pupils, and the heat sensing pits located between their eyes and nostrils. These unique serpents are capable of detecting variances in heat from as far away as 30 feet.

When you’re walking through the forest, watch where you step, and be mindful of where you sit. If in doubt, use a solid stick to probe where you’re exploring, and pay attention at all times. Always carry a flashlight, and use it at night, because snakes like to hunt after dark.

The ability to recognize venomous snakes from harmless ones isn’t as complicated as many would think. I’ve included some detailed photos with this article, and by studying them, the average person shouldn’t have any trouble distinguishing the difference. All it takes is a little effort. I avoided using the term “poisonous snake” because this is a misnomer. There’s a distinct difference between venom and poison.

In the regions of North America where you and I pursue whitetails, there are basically four types of indigenous species to contend with: The rattlesnake family, copperheads, cottonmouths (nicknamed water moccasins) and coral snakes.

The first three serpents are classified as pit vipers and are easily identified by their vertical pupils, and the heat sensing pits located between their eyes and nostrils. These reptiles have the unique ability to sense variances in heat from as far away as 30 feet.

 

The copperhead is probably responsible for more snake bites in the southeastern U.S. than any other species. Observe the natural camouflage, how it blends in nicely with this rock. These snakes can be very hard to see when they’re mixed in with brown leaves and darker foliage.

The rattler’s territory spans the largest, and various species can be found in almost every state in the union except Alaska, Hawaii and Maine. Some of the southern provinces of Canada are also home to these snakes.

Coral snakes have round pupils. They inhabit the costal regions of the southern United States, and favor semi-tropical climates. These reptiles can be identified by the three rings of color located on their body: red, yellow, and black. The old saying, red touch yellow, kill a fellow, is an easy way to remember the color sequence. Sometimes the harmless milk snake is confused with this deadly reptile because of a similar color scheme.

There are two types of venoms and both of these pose different threats. Pit vipers have retractable fangs similar to hinges and their bites are hemotoxic, affecting the circulatory systems of their victims. Their venom has digestive enzymes, which immediately begin breaking down tissue and blood, in and around the effected areas. Because of these necrotic effects, the wounded areas often turn black after a few days.

 

This harmless black snake is one of the most effective rodent predators on earth. Observe the round pupils. It’s a shame to see one these beneficial serpents mistaken for a venomous snake and killed by a misguided person who doesn’t recognize its environmental value.

The coral snake’s venom is neurotoxic, and can affect breathing and other central nervous system functions. These serpents have small mouths with fixed fangs, making it harder for one of these reptiles to inflict its bite. They have to chew on their prey to envenom them.

Something I’d like to bring to everyone’s attention that might stir some controversy among experts like herpetologists, is information pertaining to the Mojave rattler. Recent snake bite cases in the western United States have indicated that some of these snakes are developing both hemotoxins and neurotoxins, making their bites extremely dangerous. This anomaly has baffled some of the researchers, and I thought it necessary to mention this in this article.

First aid recommendations have drastically changed over the course of time, because of good medical research. Some of the old survival manuals and hunting guides, which recommended cutting yourself and applying tourniquets, are now obsolete. These methods have been proven to cause more tissue damage and can make matters worse.

 

All pit vipers have retractable hinged fangs, which can grow up to 2 inches in length. Be aware, that approximately 20 percent of bites are dry, meaning that the snake failed to inject its venom.

Statistically, you stand a greater chance of being struck by lightning while on a hunting trip, than you do of being bitten by a venomous snake.

If you’re one of the unfortunate ones who happen to be envenomed, the authorities on the subject advise staying calm and seeking medical attention immediately. If you have a snakebite kit, the venom extractor should be applied within the first few minutes to be beneficial. Be aware that dry bites do occur in approximately 20 percent of snake strikes. A dry bite is categorized as failure to inject venom. When this happens, it’s still wise to go to the hospital and let someone qualified examine your wound.

Another word of advice, when you reach your hunting vehicle or deer camp, avoid placing ice directly on your bite. Doing this can cause more localized damage, because it impedes the venom from dissipating. A small loose constricting band placed above the bite is the final thing recommended while en-route to the hospital. Make sure that you can easily slip your fingers through whatever you use, and do not tighten it.

I know five men who have been bitten by pit vipers and all of them are still alive to tell their tales. One of these gentlemen is in his 80s, and after recovering, he’s back to work in his garden. I’ve never met anyone who’s been struck by lightning.

 

This is a young cottonmouth (water moccasin). These snakes are notorious for showing you the whites of their mouths when they assume a defensive posture

Currently, there are two antivenins available in the United States. Crotalidae is the older serum, and this treatment produced allergic reactions in approximately 20 percent of patients it was administered to. The newer and more advanced antivenin, CroFabz, uses venom from every species of venomous snakes found in the U.S., and has proven to be very effective. Less than one percent have allergic reactions. The only problem with CroFab is availability, because it’s relatively new, some hospitals might not have any on hand.

Be forewarned that a pit viper with a decapitated head can inflict a deadly bite. A tough snake’s nervous system can still function for up to 30 minutes, and some of them are still capable of perceiving and responding to stimuli. If you’re ever forced to terminate a snake’s life, then be careful, treat it with respect, and don’t make any foolish mistakes.

Maintaining a healthy snake population is just as important as maintaining and regulating a proportional deer herd. Nature does have a balance, and as good stewards we need to ensure that our children, and the generations to come can enjoy the things that we’ve all been blessed with.
  
In closing, I’d like to thank herpetologist Kelly Irwin, and wildlife rehabilitation specialist and ornithologist Tommy Young for their helpful assistance and guidance. Without their advice, some of the important details included in this article wouldn’t have been possible.

By Steven E. Stillwell

From Buckmasters

Unique Adaptive Evolution Found In Snake Proteins Provide New Insight Into Vertebrate Physiology

Prior to the advent of large sequence datasets, it was assumed that innovation and divergence at the morphological and physiological level would be easily explained at the molecular level. Molecular explanations for physiological adaptations have, however, been rare. Pollock and colleagues now provide evidence that major macroevolutionary changes in snakes (e.g., physiological and metabolic adaptations and venom evolution) have been accompanied by massive functional redesign of core metabolic proteins.

“The molecular evolutionary results are remarkable, and set a new precedence for extreme protein evolutionary adaptive redesign. This represents the most dramatic burst of protein evolution in an otherwise highly conserved protein that I know of,” said Dr. David Pollock, a professor of Biochemistry & Molecular Genetics at the University of Colorado Denver School of Medicine.

Over the last ten years, scientists have shown that snakes have remarkable abilities to regulate heart and digestive system development. They endure among the most extreme shifts in aerobic metabolism known in vertebrates. This has made snakes an excellent model for studying organ development, as well as physiological and metabolic regulation. The reasons that snakes are so unique had not previously been identified at the molecular level. In this recent study by Pollock and colleagues, the researchers show that mitochondrially-encoded oxidative phosphorylation proteins in snakes have endured a remarkable process of evolutionary redesign that may explain why snakes have such unique metabolism and physiology.

Amino acids that are normally highly conserved in these proteins have been altered, affecting key molecular functions such as proton transfer (which establishes a proton concentration gradient that drives energy production in the cell). In addition to the accelerated burst of amino acid replacements, evidence for adaptation comes from the remarkable levels of molecular coevolution and convergence that were observed.

The function of core oxidative metabolic proteins in vertebrates remains extremely controversial, mostly because of the difficulty of experimentally manipulating these membrane-embedded proteins. By integrating analyses of molecular evolution with protein structural data, the authors show that critical functions of mitochondrial proteins, such as the channeling of oxygen, electrons, and protons through cytochrome C oxidase, have been fundamentally altered during the evolution of snakes. Snakes have been previously proposed as an ideal metabolic, physiological, and ecological model system to study evolution, and the current results support that idea, showing that their utility as a model system can extend to the molecular level.

“Snakes are an invaluable resource for structural biologists and biochemists, who can use comparative genomics to generate hypotheses on how COI and oxidative phosphorylation function, and how these functions may be altered and redesigned,” said Dr. Todd Castoe, a lead author on the paper.

“We believe that our results will provide a textbook case as the most clear and dramatic example of adaptive evolution in a core metabolic protein to date, as well as providing the implication that strong molecular and physiological adaptation can be linked,” said Pollock.

“The manuscript represents an important milestone in molecular evolution and vertebrate adaptation, and opens up clear and well-justified directions for further research. Snake metabolic proteins may significantly clarify understanding about the operation of these critical yet functionally elusive metabolic proteins.”

Funding was provided through an NIH training grant and other NIH grants. These funding sources had no role whatsoever in preparation of the manuscript.

From ScienceDaily

Transitional Frog Lays Eggs on Water and Land

When our distant ancestors were making their way out from the water, they had to evolve a way to lay their eggs on land.

Now a tree frog could help shed light on this mysterious, pivotal moment in history. This little yellow Panamanian amphibian is the first known vertebrate that can lay its eggs both in water and on land.

The researchers looked at the hourglass treefrog (Dendropsophus ebraccatus), which is also known as the pantless treefrog because part of its leg lacks color. This amphibian typically lays its eggs on plants hanging over ponds. After tadpoles hatch, they simply fall into the water. Now Boston University scientists Justin Touchon and Karen Warkentin find these frogs can lay egg masses directly in or on ponds.

(”Treefrog” refers to the family Hylidae, of which this species is a member. “Tree frog” in general refers to any frog that lives in trees.)

Stinky  work

To see how these amphibians choose between laying their eggs in water or on land - and to understand the demands our distant ancestors might have faced to make this shift - the researchers investigated three ponds in Panama.

“It can be messy, dirty, stinky work,” said Touchon, a behavioral ecologist. “I wouldn’t say it’s necessarily hard work. But you do have to wade out waist deep into these hot tropical ponds, and the mud smells awful and decaying, and deal with mosquitoes and many other biting insects.”

Two of the ponds were covered by shade from trees, and the frogs laid their eggs on the vegetation above the water. In a third pond in an old gravel quarry without a forest canopy, the vast majority of the eggs - about three-quarters - were laid in water, supported by aquatic vegetation. The other roughly one-quarter of the eggs were laid on leaves above the pond, although the mortality rate of these eggs was high due to the heat and lack of shade.

“We were in the right place at the right time to make this discovery,” Touchon recalled. “We were wading into the middle of the quarry pond at night looking for frogs - there are at least 10 different species of frog there out and calling on any given night - and we happened upon a pair that was laying its eggs in the water.”

Environment rules

To see if genetic differences made frogs lay eggs in water or on land, the researchers built miniature ponds in an open field and in the forest. Their findings showed that environment and not genetics was key here. Frogs placed in the shaded ponds laid their eggs above the water, and ones in unshaded ponds deposited eggs in the water.

Although humans did not evolve from frogs, our evolution does go back to other, albeit long extinct amphibians. Our remote ancestors might have evolved reproduction on land to escape aquatic predators or to cope with alterations in the environment just as these treefrogs do, improving their chances of surviving changes in habitat or climate.

“Hopefully understanding what drove the evolution of reproduction on land will give clues to what led the movement out of the water in general by all animals,” Touchon told LiveScience.

It turns out the eggs of these frogs are not ideally suited for either land or water. Eggs in the water have the challenge of getting enough oxygen, while eggs on land risk drying out, among other things. “They’re not as good at surviving on land or in the water as eggs specialized for either, but they can do both,” Touchon noted.

The most surprising thing about this discovery of an animal that can lay eggs both aquatically and terrestrially “is that nobody has actually seen something like this before,” Touchon said. “Terrestrial egg-laying has evolved many times in frogs, so there might be multiple transitional species capable of both aquatic and terrestrial breeding. It was probably because no one had thought to look for such transitional species before - until now, it was always thought frogs were either aquatic or terrestrial breeding.”

Evolution key

Knowing about these frogs gives researchers “the first opportunity to test the different ideas regarding the evolution of terrestrial breeding,” Touchon explained. “We could conduct experiments manipulating the aquatic environments or the terrestrial environments and see how that affects the survival of eggs in either environment - change the predators, for instance, or the humidity.”

And while this frog is the first vertebrate known that can lay its eggs both in water and on land, the researchers emphasize that it is probably not alone. The researchers plan to investigate closely related frogs. It may turn out this might not be limited to amphibians - quite a few fish are known to lay their eggs outside of the water, and it’s very possible that some of those species can lay both in and out of water as well, Touchon said.

Discovering other animals capable of both aquatic and terrestrial breeding is important “because terrestrial breeding has evolved so many times, it will be interesting to see if the same factors were involved, or perhaps different ones, to hopefully turn up more pieces of the puzzle,” Touchon said.

Touchon and Warkentin detailed their findings online May 19 in the journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. Their research was funded by the National Science Foundation, Boston University, the Smithsonian Institution and The Animal Behavior Society, and supported by the Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute.

From redOrbit

Another new species of lizard discovered in India

Another new species of ground dwelling lizard, Hemidactylus sataraensis, has been discovered in India by a team from the Bombay Natural History Society (BNHS). The geckos belonging to this genus are chiefly arboreal and many of them are well known to humans. The lizards or geckos which are common in houses mostly belong to this genus. In India there are 21 species in this genus, however this new lizard from Maharashtra is the largest species of Hemidactylus from India.   

This distinctive new species of gecko is chiefly rock dwelling and occurs on the cliffs in the northern Western Ghats. This gecko was first photographed by herpetologist Mr. Ashok Captain of Pune. After consultation with Mr. Varad B. Giri, of the Bombay Natural History Society, and Dr. Aaron M. Bauer of Villanova University they realised that this is an interesting and as yet undescribed species. Dr. Aaron M. Bauer is an expert on lizards and an authority in this group.

Unique herpetofauna diversity

The discovery of a new, large, rock dwelling species of Hemidactylus proves the fact that this region has a unique diversity of herpetofauna. Presently this species is only known from the type locality, but by looking at habitat preference of this species, it is strongly felt that it may be present in other regions of the northern Western Ghats and needs immediate attention. This also highlights the need for more intensive systematic surveys in this region to document the diversity. And the data generated will eventually be utilized to conserve the species and its habitats.     

Varad had submitted his findings to a scientific journal, Hamadryad which are published recently. Varad had named this new species honouring Dr. Bauer as Hemidactylus aaronbaueri.  

For further details contact:

Varad B. Giri
Scientist ‘B’
Bombay Natural History Society
Mumbai
Mobile: 9223542581
Tel.: 22821811 (office)
E-mail: varadgiri@gmail.com

Courtesy of Varad B. Giri, of the Herpetology Section of Bombay Natural History Society of Mumbai.

From Wildlife Extra

Still just a lizard

I found a blogpost that I can´t help myself from sharing with you..

“The title gets the principal objection of any creationist out of the way: yes, this population of Podarcis sicula is still made up of lizards, but they’re a different kind of lizard now. Evolution works.

Here’s the story: in 1971, scientists started an experiment. They took 5 male lizards and 5 female lizards of the species Podarcis sicula from a tiny Adriatic island called Pod Kopiste, 0.09km², and they placed them on an even tinier island, Pod Mrcaru, 0.03km², which was also inhabited by another lizard species, Podarcis melisellensis. Then a war broke out, the Croatian War of Independence, which went on and on and meant the little islands were completely neglected for 36 years, and nature took its course. When scientists finally returned to the island and looked around, they discovered that something very interesting had happened.

The original population of P. sicula was still present on Pod Kopiste, so we have a nice control population. These lizards are small, fast, insect-eaters in which the males defend territories.

Sadly, P. melisellensis on Pod Mrcaru had been extirpated. So we had a few innocent casualties of the experiment.

The transplanted P. sicula thrived and swarmed over the island of Pod Mrcaru, but they were different, and they had evolved in multiple ways.

The original P. sicula were insectivores who occasionally munched on a leaf; approximately 4-7% of their diet was vegetation. The P. sicula of Pod Mrcaru, though, had adopted a more vegetarian diet: examining their gut contents revealed that 34% of their diet was plants in the spring, climbing to 61% in the summer…and much of this diet was hard-to-digest stuff, high in cellulose. This is a fairly radical shift.

There were concomitant changes. The lizards’ skulls were wider, deeper, and longer, and they had stronger bites — a necessity for chomping off bits of tough plants, instead of soft mosquitos. Instead of chasing bugs, they’re browsing stationary plants, and their legs are shorter and they are slower. Population densities are higher. The Pod Mrcaru lizards no longer seem to defend territories, so there have been behavioral changes.

Still just a lizard, I know.

Now here’s something really cool, though: these lizards have evolved cecal valves. What those are are muscular ridges in the gut that allow the animal to close off sections of the tube to slow the progress of food through them, and to act as fermentation chambers where plant material can be broken down by commensal organisms like bacteria and nematodes — and the guts of Pod Mrcaru P. sicula are swarming with nematodes not found in the guts of their Pod Kopiste cousins.

Here’s a photo (how could I resist an opportunity to show some lizard guts?). The top ones may be a little difficult to interpret; what they’ve done is slit open the tube of the gut, and then use some pins to hold the tube open so you can see the little ridge or flap that rings the interior.

The cecal valves are an evolutionary novelty, a brand new feature not present in the ancestral population and newly evolved in these lizards. That’s important. This is more than a simple quantitative change, but is actually an observed qualitative change in a population, the appearance of a new morphological structure.

Evolution created something new, and it did it quickly (about 30 generations), and the appearance was documented. It’s still just a lizard, but we expected nothing else — and it’s now a lizard with novel adaptations for herbivory.”

From Pharyngula`s blog.

Amphibian Ark Announces ”Walking Frog” Naming Auction

Highest Bidder Wins Exclusive Naming Rights to Frog Species from Ecuador

ST. LOUIS–(BUSINESS WIRE)–Amphibian Ark, a global conservation organization formed in an effort to help save the world’s amphibians from mass extinction, is announcing its first frog naming rights auction, beginning immediately. The highest bid made on www.CharityBuzz.com will win the naming rights to a newly discovered species in the genus Osornophryne, an endangered “walking frog” indigenous to the remote Andes Mountains in Ecuador.

From one-third to one-half of the planet’s 6,000 amphibian species – frogs and toads, salamanders and newts, and caecilians – are in danger of extinction and the walking frog is no exception. The causes for these declines and extinctions come in different forms, including habitat loss, climate change, emerging diseases, pollution, and over-collection for food and pets.

“After thriving for 360 million years, frogs are in harm’s way,” said Jean-Michel Cousteau, supporter of Amphibian Ark and founder of the Oceans Future Society. “Because amphibians are the first to feel the effects of environmental stressors that could ultimately harm humans, the time to act is now.”

Walking frogs are known for having no tadpoles; instead hatched eggs release froglets. And, instead of jumping, they walk slowly along the forests of the Andes.

The winning bidder’s selected name will be published in a scientific journal. Arrangements can also be made to tour the conservation facilities in Ecuador that will protect the species, and see other endangered amphibians in their natural habitat.

The proceeds will be used by Amphibian Ark partners in Ecuador to save some of the country’s most endangered amphibian species – including the new, walking frog. The auction is being conducted by CharityBuzz.

Auctioning off naming rights for species is a growing tactic by wildlife protection organizations to raise the funds necessary to protect our planet’s biodiversity. Recent auctions have allowed philanthropists to name butterflies, monkeys, and fish.

“We are very proud to be working with Amphibian Ark in their incredibly worthy project to help raise money to protect endangered amphibians,” said Coppy Holzman, CEO of CharityBuzz.com. “Based on our prior species naming experience, we fully expect this series of frog naming auctions to be very successful and encourage everyone to visit the site and aid this worthy cause.”

In order to make a bid or learn more about Amphibian Ark and the new walking frog species, please visit http://www.charitybuzz.com/area.do?id=773.

Amphibian Ark is a partnership between the World Association of Zoos and Aquariums (WAZA), IUCN/SSC Conservation Breeding Specialist Group, and IUCN/SSC Amphibian Specialist Group. It was formed to develop, promote, and guide short term captive management of threatened amphibians, making possible the long-term survival of species for which adequate protection in the wild is not currently possible. For additional information about Amphibian Ark please visit www.amphibianark.org.

Chameleons are dying out

Chameleons or Girgits — a term often used to define politicians — are fast becoming an endangered species in the country. Zeylanicus (Chameleon) is the only lizard family that originally belongs to Pakistan and India. Several years ago, the entire green belt of Thar in Sindh was their natural habitat but now these rare species can only be found in Nagar Parkar, owing to the greenery there.

Recently Dr Theodore, a Professor at the California University, visited the Sindh government-run, Rann of Kutch Wildlife Sanctuary (Nagar Parkar) for the second time and collected some specimens for research purposes. The foreign expert’s visit was arranged jointly by the Zoological Survey Department (ZSD) of Pakistan and the Sindh Wildlife Department (SWD) officials.

Dr Theodore is conducting a research in order to find any similarities between the rare lizard specie population residing in the Indian and Pakistani wildlife sanctuaries. He is expected to come again in July this year for acquiring further information about the specie.

With 70-80 million years of evolution and some of the most grotesque physical characteristics, the chameleon is doubtlessly one of the most intriguing lizards. Like most of its relatives, it dwells exclusively in trees and thickets.

These species are able to change their skin colour, which is an expression of the physical and physiological condition of the lizard. Different chameleon species are able to change colours which include pink, blue, red, orange, green, black, brown and yellow, which is why they are able to blend into their surroundings. However, recent research has indicated that chameleons may also change their colour as a method of communication, including making themselves more attractive to potential mates.

Syed Shamim Fakhri, a field observer of the Zoological Survey Department, said that the chameleon changes colours to protect itself. It prefers to live at the top of a tree. He rejects the notion that it is poisonous and added that it is a friendly animal but can not survive in a different environment. It eats particular insects in the wild. Fakhri also claimed that the chameleon is only present in the Sindh province.

Not only government-run zoos, but also private individuals also keep chameleons as pets. Local people are hunting down or capturing these endangered species which has become a lucrative business, therefore violating many international laws.

More than 160 kinds of chameleon species are at present, arranged in nine genera and are mostly oviparous, and some are ovoviviparous. The oviparous species lay eggs after a 3-6 week gestation period. The female digs a hole in the ground, anywhere from 4-12 inches (10-30cm) deep depending on the species. The female turns herself around at the bottom of the hole and deposits her eggs. Once finished, the female buries the eggs and leaves the nesting site. Clutch sizes vary greatly with species.

Though Pakistan is a signatory of international laws about the export of endangered species and their hunting, still various species have been under threat due to a lack of implementation of certain laws.

Despite the fact that the ZSD and SWD have experts but due to the lack of funds in the relevant departments, they are unable to conduct adequate research.

From The News

Species extinction poses threat to medical science

As species decline, huge losses to medical science may follow suit.

A NEW generation of antibiotics, new treatments for thinning bone disease and kidney failure, and new cancer treatments may all stand to be lost unless the world acts to reverse the present alarming rate of biodiversity loss, a new landmark book says.

The natural world holds secrets to the development of new kinds of safer and more powerful painkillers; treatments for a leading cause of blindness – macular degeneration – and possibly ways of re-growing lost tissues and organs by, for example studying newts and salamanders.

But, the experts warn that we may lose many of the land and marine-based life forms of economic and medical interest before we can learn their secrets, or, in some cases, before we know they exist.

The new book, Sustaining Life: How Human Health Depends on Biodiversity, is the most comprehensive treatment of this subject to date and fills a major gap in the arguments made to conserve nature. While many books have focused on the expected ecological consequences, or on the aesthetic, ethical, sociological, or economic dimensions of biodiversity loss, Sustaining Life examines the full range of potential threats that this loss poses to human health.

A particularly illustrative example, highlighted by the book’s authors, of what may be lost with species extinctions can be found in the southern gastric brooding frog (Rheobatrachus) which was discovered in undisturbed rainforests of Australia in the 80s. The frogs raise their young in the female’s stomach where they would, in other animals, be digested by enzymes and acid.

Preliminary studies indicated that the baby frogs produced a substance, or perhaps a variety of substances, that inhibited acid and enzyme secretions and prevented the mother from emptying her stomach into her intestines while the young were developing.

The authors point out that the research on gastric brooding frogs could have led to new insights into preventing and treating human peptic ulcers which affect some 25 million people in the United States alone.

“But these studies could not be continued because both species of Rheobactrachus became extinct, and the valuable medical secrets they held are now gone forever,” say Eric Chivian and Aaron Bernstein, the key authors of the book based at the Centre for Health and the Global Environment, Harvard Medical School.

Sustaining Life is the work of more than 100 experts and published by Oxford University Press. At the heart of the book is a chapter dedicated to exploring seven threatened groups of organisms valuable to medicine, including amphibians, bears, cone snails, sharks, nonhuman primates, gymnosperms, and horseshoe crabs that underscore what may be lost to human health when species go extinct.

These losses include: promising new avenues of medical research and new treatments, pharmaceuticals and diagnostic tests.

 A giant leaf-tailed gecko from Montagne d’Anjanaharibe, Madagascar.

“The Earth’s biodiversity, much of which has yet to be discovered, provides a unique opportunity to improve not only the health of current but also that of future generations. However as species are lost so too are our options for future discovery and advancement. Thus Sustaining Life provides poignant evidence that biodiversity loss is not merely an environmental issue but one which affects us on a very basic, fundamental and personal level,” said Ahmed Djoghlaf, United Nations assistant secretary-general and executive secretary of the Convention on Biological Diversity.

Experts, including the authors, emphasise that the book’s conclusions should not be construed as a licence to harvest wildlife in a way that puts further pressure on already threatened, vulnerable and endangered species. Instead they should be a spur for even greater conservation and improved management of species and the ecosystems they inhabit.

Jeffrey McNeely, chief scientist at IUCN-World Conservation Union and a co-author of the book, said: “While extinction is alarming in its own right, this book demonstrates that many species can help save human lives. If we needed more justification for action to conserve species, this book offers dozens of dramatic examples of both why and how citizens can act in ways that will conserve, rather than destroy, the species that enrich our lives.” – United Nations Environment Programme

Amphibians

The class Amphibians is made up of frogs, toads, newts, salamanders and caecilians – little known legless organisms that resemble giant earthworms. Nearly one third of the approximately 6,000 known amphibian species are threatened with extinction. These animals produce a wide range of novel substances, some of which are made only by amphibians living in the wild, not by those in captivity.

 A blue poison dart fron from northern South America. One third of 6,000 known amphibian species are threatened by extinction.

These include:

 

• Pumiliotoxins, like those made by the Panamanian poison frog that may lead to medicines that strengthen the contractions of the heart and thus prove useful in treating heart disease.

 

 

• Alkaloids made by species like the Ecuadorian poison frog, which could be the source of a new and novel generation of painkillers.

 

 

• Antibacterial compounds produced in the skin of frogs and toads such as the African clawed frog and South and Central American leaf frogs.

 

 

• Bradykinins and maximakinins, made in the skin glands of species like the Chinese large-webbed bell toad; Mexican leaf frog, and North American pickerel frog that dilate the smooth muscle of blood vessels in mammals and therefore offer promising avenues for treating high blood pressure.

 

 

• Frog glue, produced by species such as the Australian frog, could lead to natural adhesives for repairing cartilage and other tissue tears in humans.

 

 

• Many species of newts and salamanders, such as the Eastern spotted newt, can regrow tissues such as heart muscle, nerve tissue in the spinal cord and even whole organs.

 

 

• As we are in evolutionary terms relatively closely related to these species, they are vital models for understanding how we might someday harness our own dormant regenerative potential.

 

 

• Some frogs, such as the grey tree frog and the chorus frog can survive long periods of freezing without suffering cell damage – understanding how these frogs do this may yield key insights into how we might better preserve scarce organs needed for transplant.

 

Bears

 A brown bear and her cubs. Bears are hunted for their paws and gall bladders.

Nine species of bear are threatened with extinction including the polar bear, the giant panda, and the Asiatic black bear. The threats to bears are similar to those amphibians face, but in addition many bears are at risk because they are killed for body parts, such as gall bladders, which can command high prices in black markets in places like China, Japan and Thailand.

Several medical benefits have already arisen from the study of bears, including the development of ursodeoxycholic acid, found in the gall bladders of some bear species such as polar and black bears, into a medicine.

The substance is used to prevent the build up of bile during pregnancy; dissolve certain kinds of gallstones; and prolong the life of patients with a specific kind of liver disease, known as primary biliary cirrhosis, giving them more time to find a liver transplant.

Some bear species, known as “denning” bears because they enter into a largely dormant state when food is scarce, are of tremendous value to medicine as they are able to recycle a wide variety of their body’s substances.

Unlike people, who if “bed-ridden” for a five-month period can lose up to a third of their bone mass, bears actually lay down new bone during the denning period. Bears appear to produce a substance that inhibits cells that break down bone and promote substances that encourage bone and cartilage-making cells. Denning bears can survive for a period of five months or more without excreting their urinary wastes, whereas humans would die from the build up of these toxic substances after only a few days. An estimated 1.5 million people worldwide are receiving treatment for end-stage renal disease. By studying denning bears, we may be able to learn how to treat them more effectively and help large numbers to survive. Denning bears may also hold clues to treating Type 1 and Type II diabetes as well as obesity. When produced in a non-invasive and ethically acceptable way, without pushing already threatened species further towards extinction, these substances are of great value to medicine.

Gymnosperms

Close to 1,000 species of Gymnosperms have been identified, including pines and spruces. Evolutionary, they are among the oldest of any plants alive but many groups, such as the cycads, are classified as endangered.

Several pharmaceuticals, including decongestants and the anti-cancer drug taxol, have already been isolated from gymnosperms. The researchers believe many more are yet to be discovered and may be lost if species of Gymnosperms become extinct.

Substances from one Gymnosperm, the ginkgo tree may reduce the production of receptors in the human nervous system linked with memory loss. Thus they may play a role in countering Alzheimer’s disease.

They may also help in the treatment of epilepsy and depression.

Cone snails

Around 700 species make up the cone snails, seven of which were identified only since 2004. While only four are now classified as vulnerable, no thorough assessment has been made in over 10 years; so current listings may under-estimate the true number of endangered cone snail species. For example, almost 70% of some 380 cone snail species surveyed had more than half their geographic range within areas where coral reefs, their main habitats, are threatened.

Cone snail species may produce as many as 70,000 to 140,000 peptide compounds, large numbers of which may have value as human medicines, yet only a few hundred have been characterised.

One compound, known as ziconotide, is thought to be 1,000 times more potent than morphine and has been shown in clinical trials to provide significant pain relief for advanced cancer and AIDS patients. Another cone snail compound has been shown in animal models to protect brain cells from death during times of inadequate blood flow.

It could prove a breakthrough therapy for people suffering head injuries and strokes and may even contribute to therapy for patients with Parkinson’s and Alzheimer’s. Other potential developments from cone snail peptides include treatments for urinary incontinence and cardiac arrhythmias.

Sharks

There are at least 400 species of sharks, which, as a group, evolved in ancient seas 400 to 450 million years ago. Many species are now threatened, with some species, such as the scalloped hammerhead, white shark and thresher shark, falling in numbers by as much as 75% over the past 15 years.

Over-fishing has been the main reason for the losses, and has been driven by: an increased demand for shark meat as a substitute for traditional commercial fish catches in foods like fish and chips; the rise in consumption of shark fin soup; increases in by-catch, for example, in tuna fisheries; and an increased market for shark cartilage products for a variety of unproved medical purposes.

Squalamine, a substance isolated from sharks such as dogfish, especially abundant in their livers, may lead to a new generation of antibiotics as well as treatments against fungal and protozoan infections. Studies are also being undertaken with squalamine compounds as possible anti-tumour and appetitesuppressant substances.

Trials are now also underway to see if squalamine can treat age-related macular degeneration which can lead to severe vision loss. The shark substance may halt the growth of new blood cells in the retina, which is linked to a loss of retinal function and blindness in these patients.

The salt glands of some sharks are also being studied to gain insight into how the human kidney functions and how chloride ions are transported across membranes, which may shed light on two diseases – cystic fibrosis and polycystic kidney disease.

Sharks, having evolved as some of the first creatures with a fully functioning “adaptive” immune system are irreplaceable models to help us understand human immunity. What potential these creatures may still hold to further our knowledge of immunity is being rapidly depleted with the mass slaughter of sharks and the endangerment of sharks worldwide.

Horseshoe crabs

There are four species of horseshoe crabs, with each organism possessing four eyes and six other light-detecting organs as well as blood that turns cobalt blue when exposed to the air. Because only around 10 offspring survive out of the estimated 90,000 eggs produced by a female, they are highly sensitive to over-fishing.

Once harvested and processed to be used as fertiliser, they are now used as bait for eel and whelk fisheries. Horseshoe crabs are also important in the food chain, especially for birds like the red knott, which rely upon the eggs for fuel over their 16,000km migratory journey Horseshoe crabs also have tremendous value to medicine. Several classes of peptides have been isolated from the creatures’ blood that appear to kill a wide range of bacteria.

Another peptide from the horseshoe crab has been developed into a compound known as T140 which locks onto the receptor in humans that allows the Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) to gain access into the body’s immune cells. Pre-clinical trails indicate that the substance is at least as effective as the drug AZT at inhibiting the replication of HIV.

T140 has also shown promise in preventing the spread of certain cancers such as leukaemia, prostate cancer and breast cancer, and as a possible treatment for rheumatoid arthritis. Other cells in the blood of horseshoe crabs can, for example, detect the presence of key bacteria in the spinal fluid of people suspected of having cerebral meningitis.

From The Star

Amphibian Ark: 5 for Frogs..

AMPHIBIAN ARK JUMP STARTS RESCUE WITH 5 FOR FROGS 

 

Five month campaign to raise $500,000 and save five species of frogs

 

 

 

MINNEAPOLIS, Minnesota, USA ( May 1, 2008 )

 

 

 

 

 

Amphibian Ark, a global conservation organization created to raise awareness and rally fundraising to protect endangered amphibian species, announced today the commencement of its 5 for Frogs campaign. 5 for Frogs is a grassroots crusade with the goal of raising $500,000 to save five endangered species in five months.

The ”pay it forward” spirit behind 5 for Frogs asks kids and adults to do something to help frogs, salamanders, and other amphibians through acts of kindness involving the number 5. It could be as simple as someone telling or emailing five people about the looming mass extinction of amphibians. Or, it could be holding a charity car wash or selling cookies to raise $5, $50, or even $500 for Amphibian Ark to allocate to rescue projects. If thousands get involved, each can play a part in saving five or more species from extinction. Fifty ideas for getting involved in 5 for Frogs are listed on the Amphibian Ark Web site at www.amphibianark.org.

The May kickoff of 5 for Frogs starts with a U.S. national FrogWatch on May 3 involving hundreds of students who will monitor the environmental health status of amphibians in their communities through a cooperative effort organized by the National Association of Biology Teachers (NABT) and the National Wildlife Federation. FrogWatch is a volunteer-based program that encourages everyone to help by getting outdoors and monitoring local wetlands for breeding frogs and toads.

“Not since the disappearance of the dinosaurs have we seen an extinction of this magnitude,” said Jean-Michele Cousteau, supporter of Amphibian Ark and founder of the Oceans Future Society.

“Because amphibians are the first to feel the effects of environmental stressors that could ultimately harm humans, and they play a critical role in our ecosystem, the time to act is now.”

In addition to the grassroots activities, 5 for Frogs will feature several global, special events throughout the summer. Five species of amphibians that have not yet been given common names will have their naming rights auctioned, with proceeds earmarked for Amphibian Ark. And, an endangered Mexican species, the Large-crested toad, will receive special visibility on Cinco de Mayo, celebrated, of course, on the fifth day of the fifth month.

 

5 for Frogs

Add One

 

“The Year 2008 has been dubbed The Year of the Frogs by conservationists from around the world to highlight the amphibian crisis and to save the most endangered species from extinction. As a result, the 5 for Frogs campaign could not come at a better time in an attempt to channel these efforts.”

Amphibian Ark is a partnership between the World Association of Zoos and Aquariums (WAZA), IUCN/SSC Conservation Breeding Specialist Group, and IUCN/SSC Amphibian Specialist Group. It was formed to develop, promote, and guide short term captive management of threatened amphibians, making possible the long-term survival of species for which adequate protection in the wild is not currently possible. To learn more about Amphibian Ark, the 5 for Frogs campaign, and to review 50 inspirational and creative ways to raise funds for amphibians, please visit www.amphibianark.org

 

A couple of good links related to this project.

5 for frogs fact sheet.

50 ways to save amphibians.